Researched by | Dr Heidi Tillin & Karen Riley | Refereed by | This information is not refereed |
---|
In deep water and soft muds of Boreal and Arctic areas, a community dominated by foraminiferans and the bivalve Thyasira sp. (e.g. Thyasira croulinensis and Thyasira pygmaea) may occur (Thorson, 1957; Künitzer et al., 1992). Foraminiferans such as Saccammina, Psammosphaera, Haplophragmoides, Crithionina and Astorhiza are important components of this community with dead tests numbering thousands per m2 (see Stephen 1923; McIntyre 1961) and sometimes visible from benthic photography (Mackie et al., 1995). It is likely that a community dominated by Astorhiza in fine sands in the Irish Sea may be another distinct biotope (E.I.S. Rees pers. comm. 2002). Polychaetes, e.g. Paraonis gracilis, Myriochele heeri, Spiophanes kroyeri, Tharyx sp., Lumbrineris tetraura, are also important components of this biotope. These communities appear to have no equivalent on the continental plateau further south (Glemarec, 1973) but are known from the edge of the Celtic Deep in the Irish Sea (Mackie et al., 1995). The benthos in these offshore areas has been shown to be principally Foraminifera and similar, rich communities may exist in Scottish sealochs (McIntyre 1961). Communities from yet deeper (northern) waters at the extremes of the North Sea may be reminiscent, although dissimilar to ForThy (see Pearson et al., 1996) reflecting a higher proportion of silt/clay. A fully Arctic version of this biotope has also been described (Thorson 1934, 1957) although it should be noted that Jones (1950) considered this Boreal foraminiferan community to be part of a 'Boreal Deep Mud Association' (JNCC, 2015).
None entered
Community structure
The presence of the characterizing and other species in this biotope is primarily determined by the occurrence of a suitable substratum rather than by interspecific interactions. However, the component species modify the habitat and, in that way, affect each other. The following points may be relevant to this biotope.
Another factor determining the distribution of assemblages is the annual variation of temperature in bottom layers, influenced by the amount of stratification in the water column. COS.ForThy occurs in water depth greater than 100 m in the North Sea and Celtic Sea, i.e. deeper than the seasonally stratified water.
Predator-prey relationships
Most of the species living in deep mud biotopes are generally cryptic so are protected to some extent from visual surface predators. However, some species of foraminifera, such as Astrorhiza sp. usually live on the substratum surface. The arm tips of Amphiura chiajei, which is often present in this biotope, are also an important food source for demersal species.
Large areas of the southern North Sea are not stratified during most of the year and the summer temperature of bottom waters is high (>10°C) (Tomczak & Goedecke, 1964), while in the stratified areas north of the Dogger Bank summer temperatures are <7°C. In winter the southern North Sea is colder (4°C) than the rest of the North Sea (5-7°C). Phytoplankton productivity increases during the summer, which may lead to more available food for macrofauna. However, in the North Sea large stocks of copepods develop, which consume the summer production of phytoplankton (Fransz & Gieskes, 1984). The faecal pellets do not reach the deep water, being recycled higher in the water column (Krause, 1981) so limiting this source of food to benthos in the summer months. This could explain the low biomass of infauna in the northern North Sea (Künitzer et al., 1992).
The biotope has very little surface structural complexity as most species are infaunal, however, the bioturbating megafauna can create considerable structural complexity below the surface, relative to sediments that lack such animals.
Macroalgae are absent from COS.ForThy and consequently productivity is mostly secondarily derived from detritus and organic material. Allochthonous organic material is therefore derived from plankton including dead plankton sinking to the seabed and other animal productivity. Autochthonous organic material is also formed by benthic microalgae (microphytobenthos e.g. diatoms and euglenoids) and heterotrophic micro-organism production. Organic material is degraded by micro-organisms and the nutrients recycled.
No information is known about the reproduction and recruitment of foraminifera within this biotope.
Larval development of Thyasira equalis is lecithotrophic and the pelagic stage is very short or quite suppressed. This agrees with the reproduction of other Thyasira sp., and in some cases (Thyasira gouldii) no pelagic stage occurs at all (Thorson, 1946). This means that larval dispersal is limited. No information relating to fecundity of Thyasira species within the biotope was found, however information is available for another Thyasira sp., and it is possible that fecundity is similar in species within the COS.ForThy biotope. Spawning of Thyasira gouldii occurs throughout the year, with up to 750 eggs produced each time. No information is available on the mechanism of spawning or the number of spawnings per year.
Other species that usually occur in the biotope, such as polychaetes and brittlestars usually have planktonic development, an annual reproductive cycle and are fecund.
Little is known about the mode of reproduction and recoverability of foraminifera. All other characteristic species within the biotope are fecund and species such as polychaetes and brittlestars are likely to recover fairly quickly. However, the larval development of Thyasira equalis is lecithotrophic and the pelagic stage is very short or quite suppressed. This agrees with the reproduction of other Thyasira sp., and in some cases (Thyasira gouldii) no pelagic stage occurs at all (Thorson, 1946). This means that larval dispersal is limited.
Explanations for the high recovery of these populations could be due to high post-settlement survival, or new populations of adults washed in by bedload transport to colonize the area.
No text entered.
Depth Range | 50-100 m |
---|---|
Water clarity preferences | |
Limiting Nutrients | No information |
Salinity preferences | Full (30-40 psu) |
Physiographic preferences | |
Biological zone preferences | Circalittoral |
Substratum/habitat preferences | Mud |
Tidal strength preferences | Very Weak (negligible) |
Wave exposure preferences | |
Other preferences |
-
The biotope is characterized by by foraminiferans such as Saccammina, Psammosphaera, Haplophragmoides, Crithionina and Astorhiza and the bivalve Thyasira sp. (e.g. Thyasira croulinensis and Thyasira pygmaea). Little evidence was found to assess the sensitivity of these species and the assessments are relatively generic and based on a number of formanifera and Thyasira spp.The biotope is characterized by by foraminiferans such as Saccammina, Psammosphaera, Haplophragmoides, Crithionina and Astorhiza and the bivalve Thyasira sp. (e.g. Thyasira croulinensis and Thyasira pygmaea). Little evidence was found to assess the sensitivity of these species and the assessments are relatively generic and based on a number of formanifera and Thyasira spp. The biotope is characterized by foraminiferans such as Saccammina, Psammosphaera, Haplophragmoides, Crithionina and Astorhiza and the bivalve Thyasira sp. (e.g. Thyasira croulinensis and Thyasira pygmaea). Little evidence was found to assess the sensitivity of these species and the assessments are relatively generic and based on a number of formanifera and Thyasira spp.
Little is known about the mode of reproduction, growth rate and recoverability of foraminifera. In the absence of such information, assessment of recovery potential has to be precautionary and may be more than five years.
The larval development of Thyasira equalis is lecithotrophic and the pelagic stage is very short or suppressed. This agrees with the reproduction of other Thyasira sp., and in some cases (e.g. Thyasira gouldii) no pelagic stage occurs at all (Thorson, 1946, 1950). This means that larval dispersal is limited. If mortality of Thyasira sp. occurs, there would have to be nearby populations for recovery to occur. Where some individuals survive, due to the fact that larvae spend little or no time in the water column, post-settlement survival may be higher, and the population may be able to recover. It is also possible that adults could be brought into the area by bed load transport, enabling colonization (Riley, 2002). Sparks-McConkey and Watling (2001) found that a population of Thyasira flexuosa in Penobscot Bay, Maine recovered rapidly (within 3.5 months) following trawler disturbance that resulted in a decrease in the population. Benthic reproduction allows recolonization of nearby disturbed sediment and leads to rapid recovery where a large proportion of the population remains to repopulate the habitat.
Resilience assessment: Removal of the characterizing Thyasira spp. would result in the biotope being lost and/or re-classified. Where the habitat is suitable, recovery of Thyasira spp. is expected to be ‘High’ based on recruitment form the local population. Where perturbation removes a portion of the population or even causes local extinction (resistance ‘High’, ‘Medium’ or ‘Low’) resilience is likely to be ‘High’ for as long as habitat is suitable and recruitment from neighbouring areas is possible. However, in areas of suitable habitat that are isolated, where total extinction of the population occurs (resistance ‘None’) recovery is likely to depend on favourable hydrodynamic conditions that will allow recruitment from farther away. Given low dispersal potential of Thyasira spp, recruitment to re-colonize impacted area may take longer. However, once an area has been recolonized, restoration of the biomass of the characterizing species is likely to occur quickly and resilience is likely to be ‘Medium’ (full recovery within 2-10 years). Little is known about the ecology and recovery of foraminiferans. Water transport of adults is likely to support recovery. The assessment is therefore based on Thyasira spp.
Use / to open/close text displayed | Resistance | Resilience | Sensitivity |
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
The distribution of fossilised foraminifera is used to track changes in bottom water temperatures, as each species occurs in a particular temperature range (Archer & Martin, 2001) suggesting that some species are intolerant of temperature changes. Thyasira flexuosa does not occur in the southernmost part of the North Sea but is distributed from Norway to the Azores, and extends into the Mediterranean (Tillin & Tyler-Walters, 2014). In the northern North Sea, foraminiferan dominated biotopes containing Thyasira equalis, Saccammina sp., Psammosphaera sp. and Astrohiza arenaria is present in ‘constant Boreal water’ where the bottom temperature among foraminifera communities has been noted to have a low temperature range (Stephen, 1923), with temperatures oscillating between 6 and 8 °C (McIntyre, 1961).The foraminiferan and Thyasira biotopes of the Forties Further south, a greater range of bottom temperatures occurs and the biotope is not present. But this could also be due to an increase in sediment particle size with decreasing depth in this area. However, the Atlantic community which contains Thyasira flexuosa and Crithionina granum lives in ‘varying Boreal water’, with temperatures varying between 7 and 13 °C (McIntyre, 1961). Sensitivity assessment. Available information suggests that the community is highly dependent on a relatively constant temperature and that different species of Thyasira sp. and foraminifera thrive in different temperature ranges. This pressure is not assessed due to lack of evidence. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
There is no information on the response of the biotope to a decrease in temperature. Thyasira flexuosa does not occur in the southernmost part of the North Sea but is distributed from Norway to the Azores, and extends into the Mediterranean (Tillin & Tyler-Walters, 2014). However, Thyasira populations in the British Isles are restricted to areas where the bottom waters remain cool all year round (Jackson, 2007). No specific information on temperature tolerances of Thyasira spp. was found. The distribution of fossilised foraminifera is used to track changes in bottom water temperatures, as each species occurs in a particular temperature range (Archer & Martin, 2001). This suggests that they are intolerant of temperature changes. In the northern North Sea, foraminiferan domianted biotopes containing Thyasira equalis, Saccammina sp., Psammosphaera sp. and Astrohiza arenaria is present in ‘constant Boreal water’ where the bottom temperature among foraminifera communities has been noted to have a low temperature range (Stephen, 1923), with temperatures oscillating between 6 and 8 °C (McIntyre, 1961). Further south, a greater range of bottom temperatures occurs and the biotope is not present. But this could also be due to an increase in sediment particle size with decreasing depth in this area. However, the Atlantic community which contains Thyasira flexuosa and Crithionina granum lives in ‘varying Boreal water’, with temperatures varying between 7 and 13 °C (McIntyre, 1961). Sensitivity assessment. Available information suggests that the community is highly dependent on a relatively constant temperature and that different species of Thyasira sp. and foraminifera thrive in different temperature ranges. This pressure is not assessed due to lack of evidence. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
No evidence. | |||
Low | Medium | Medium | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
This biotope is found in full salinity (30-35 ppt). Thyasira spp. can inhabit waters of reduced salinity with 25-30 psu being optimal. However, adults exposed to lower than optimal salinities produced non-viable or slow developing eggs (Jackson, 2007). This circalittoral biotope that has not been recorded from locations with brackish waters and so is probably highly intolerant of a decrease in salinity. In the northern North Sea, foraminiferan dominated biotopes containing Thyasira equalis, Saccammina sp., Psammosphaera sp. and Astrohiza arenaria, is present where salinities remain fairly constant, between 35.20 and 35.26 ppm (McIntyre, 1961). However, the Atlantic community which contains Thyasira flexuosa and Crithionina granum (foraminifera) occurs in waters where salinity varies between 33.86 and 34.33 (McIntyre, 1961). This suggests that the community is highly dependent on a relatively constant salinity. Mobile species would be able to avoid the change in salinity by moving away, but localised densities would decline. Sensitivity assessment. Resistance has been assessed as ‘Low’. Recoverability may be ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is assessed as ‘Medium’. | |||
Medium | High | Low | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
This biotope occurs in deep waters where tidal flows are weak (<0.5 m/s) (JNCC, 2015). The community occurs in fine soft mud that only develops in areas of weak tidal streams. Following an increase in water flow rate at the pressure benchmark the surface sediments and epifaunal foraminifera may be subject to some winnowing but the cohesive nature of subtidal muds will limit the impact. The lower substratum inhabited by mature specimens of Thyasira sp., infaunal foraminifera, polychaetes and other species are likely to remain unchanged. Sensitivity assessment. Since the majority of characterizing species are likely to persist, resistance has been assessed as ‘Medium’ as some removal of epifaunal foraminifera may occur. On return to normal water flow rates, resilience is assessed as ‘High’ as water transport from periodic storm events may restore populations of adult foraminifera. Biotope sensitivity is, therefore, assessed as 'Low. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant to sublittoral biotopes. | |||
High | High | Not sensitive | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: High A: High C: High | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
As this biotope occurs in circalittoral habitats it is not directly exposed to the action of breaking waves. The characterizing Thyasira spp. and associated polychaete species that burrow are protected within the sediment but the characterizing foraminiferans would be exposed to oscillatory water flows at the seabed. No specific evidence was found to assess this pressure. Sensitivity assessment. The biotope is considered to be ‘Not sensitive’ to changes in wave height, at the pressure benchmark, based on the depth of the habitat. |
Use / to open/close text displayed | Resistance | Resilience | Sensitivity |
Not Assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not Sensitive at the pressure benchmark that assumes compliance with all relevant environmental protection standards. | |||
Not Assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available. | |||
Not Assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
No evidence. | |||
Not Assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
This pressure is Not assessed. | |||
Low | High | Low | |
Q: High A: High C: NR | Q: High A: Low C: NR | Q: High A: Low C: Low | |
Dando & Spiro (1993) found that numbers of Thyasira equalis and Thyasira sarsi decreased rapidly following the de-oxygenation of bottom water in the deep basin of Gullmar fjord in 1979-80. Sensitivity assessment: A proportion of the characterizing species in these biotopes is likely to be lost, a resistance of ‘Low’ (>75% loss) is suggested based on Thyasira spp. Resilience is probably ‘High’, and therefore the biotopes’ sensitivity to this pressure if likely to be ‘Low’.
| |||
High | High | Not sensitive | |
Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | |
This pressure relates to increased levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon in the marine environment compared to background concentrations. The pressure benchmark is set at compliance with Water Framework Directive (WFD) criteria for good status, based on nitrogen concentration (UKTAG, 2014). Sensitivity assessment. This biotope is considered to have ‘High’ resistance to this pressure and ‘High’ resilience, (by default) and is assessed as ‘Not sensitive’. | |||
Low | High | Low | |
Q: High A: Medium C: NR | Q: High A: Low C: NR | Q: High A: Low C: Low | |
Many of the species present are deposit feeders characteristic of organically enriched areas. An input of organic matter at the pressure benchmark is likely to provide a food subsidy to these species. Thyasira spp. are characteristic of organically enriched offshore sediments and have been identified as a ‘progressive’ species, i.e. one that shows increased abundance under slight organic enrichment (Leppakoski, 1975, cited in Gray, 1979). In the development of the AMBI index to assess disturbance (including organic enrichment), both Borja et al. (2000) and Gittenberger & van Loon (2011) assigned Thyasira flexuosa to their Ecological Group III (defined as ‘species tolerant to excess organic matter enrichment). These species may occur under normal conditions, but their populations are stimulated by organic enrichment (slight unbalance situations)’. Sensitivity assessment The evidence presented suggests that the majority of the characterizing and associated species in the biotopes are likely to be able to utilize additional organic load as food and are present in enriched habitats. Biotope resistance is therefore assessed as ‘High’ and resilience as ‘high’ so that the biotope is assessed as ‘Not sensitive’.
|
Use / to open/close text displayed | Resistance | Resilience | Sensitivity |
None | Very Low | High | |
Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | |
All marine habitats and benthic species are considered to have a resistance of ‘None’ to this pressure and to be unable to recover from a permanent loss of habitat (resilience is ‘Very Low’). Sensitivity within the direct spatial footprint of this pressure is therefore ‘High’. Although no specific evidence is described confidence in this assessment is ‘High’, due to the incontrovertible nature of this pressure. | |||
None | Very Low | High | |
Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: High | |
The biotope is characterized by the sedimentary habitat (JNCC, 2015), a change to an artificial or rock substratum would alter the character of the biotope leading to reclassification and the loss of the sedimentary community including the characterizing bivalves, polychaetes and echinoderms that live buried within the sediment. Sensitivity assessment. Based on the loss of the biotope, resistance is assessed as ‘None’, recovery is assessed as ‘Very low’ (as the change at the pressure benchmark is permanent and sensitivity is assessed as ‘High’. | |||
Low | Very Low | High | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
The change referred to at the pressure benchmark is a change in sediment classification (based on Long, 2006) rather than a change in the finer-scale original Folk categories (Folk, 1954). For muddy sediments, resistance is assessed based on a change to either mixed sediments or sand and muddy sands . The characterizing Thyasira spp. prefer fine sediments including mud, muddy sand and sandy mud (Jackson, 2007). Sensitivity assessment: A change in Folk class from mud to sand or muddy sand would probably not eliminate the characterizing Thyasira spp and the habitat may still be suitable for foraminiferans, however, some grades of mixed sediments with low fractions of fine sediments would probably be unsuitable. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ (loss of 25-75%) and resilience is considered 'Very low’ given the permanent nature of this pressure. Sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘High’. | |||
None | Medium | Medium | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
Resistance is assessed as ‘None’ as extraction of the sediment swill remove the characterizing and associated species present. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ as foraminiferans may require longer than two years to re-establish (see resilience section) and sediments may need to recover (where exposed layers are different). Biotope sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium’. | |||
Medium | High | Low | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
No evidence was found to assess this pressure. Abrasion may result in some damage and mortality, resistance is therefore assessed as 'Medium' and resilience as 'High', biotope sensitivity is therefore assessed as 'Low'. | |||
Low | High | Low | |
Q: High A: High C: High | Q: High A: High C: NR | Q: High A: High C: Low | |
Activities that disturb the surface and penetrate below the surface would remove /damage epifauna and infaunal species such as the characterizing species within the direct area of impact. The shells of Thyasira spp. are thin and fragile and penetration and disturbance of the sediment is likely to lead to damage and mortality within the population. Sparks-McConkey & Watling (2001) found that trawler disturbance resulted in a decline of Thyasira flexuosa in Penobscot Bay, Maine. However, the population recovered after 3.5 months. The direct mortality (percentage of initial density) of Thyasira flexuosa from trawling was estimated as 0-28%, based on samples taken with a Day grab before and 24 hours after trawling (Ball et al., 2000a). Gilkinson et al. (1998) found that otter trawling that disturbed the sediment displaced small bivalves but that these were unharmed. Sediment penetration may therefore, disturb and displace foraminiferans but these may survive due to small size and robust tests. Sensitivity assessment: A proportion of the characterizing species in these biotopes is likely to be lost or severely damaged, depending on the scale of the activity (see abrasion pressure). Therefore, a resistance of ‘Low’ (>75% loss) is suggested based on Thyasira spp. Resilience is probably ‘High’ (where foraminiferan populations undergo only small declines), and therefore biotope sensitivity to this pressure is likely to be ‘Low’. | |||
High | High | Not sensitive | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: High A: High C: High | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
No evidence. Changes in suspended solids are considered unlikely to affect the characterizing species and resistance is assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' so that the biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive'. | |||
None | Medium | Medium | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
Bijkerk (1988, results cited from Essink, 1999) indicated that the maximal overburden through which small bivalves could migrate was 20 cm in sand for Donax and approximately 40 cm in mud for Tellina sp. and approximately 50 cm in sand. No further information was available on the rates of survivorship or the time taken to reach the surface. This suggests that the characterizing species Thyasira spp. may be able to re-borrow through similar overburdens. Thyasira flexuosa have ‘highly extensible feet’ (Dando & Southward, 1986) allowing them to construct channels within the sediment and to burrow to 8 cm depth. Epifaunal foraminifera may not be able to burrow to the surface and at least a proportion of the population may be lost. However, little information on foraminiferan biology was found, and so, in the absence of information tolerance has been assessed as 'None', albeit with very low confidence. Loss of the characterizing species of foraminifera would mean that the biotope is no longer SS.SMu.OMu.ForThy and so resistance is assessed as 'None'. Resilience is assessed as 'Medium' and sensitivity is assessed as 'Medium'. | |||
None | Medium | Medium | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
Bijkerk (1988, results cited from Essink, 1999) indicated that the maximal overburden through which small bivalves could migrate was 20 cm in sand for Donax and approximately 40 cm in mud for Tellina sp. and approximately 50 cm in sand. No further information was available on the rates of survivorship or the time taken to reach the surface. This suggests that the characterizing species Thyasira spp. may be able to re-borrow through similar overburdens. Thyasira flexuosa have ‘highly extensible feet’ (Dando & Southward, 1986) allowing them to construct channels within the sediment and to burrow to 8 cm depth. Epifaunal foraminifera may not be able to burrow to the surface and at least a proportion of the population may be lost. However, little information on foraminiferan biology was found, and so, in the absence of information, tolerance has been assessed as 'None', albeit with very low confidence. Loss of the characterizing species of foraminifera would mean that the biotope is no longer SS.SMu.OMu.ForThy and so resistance is assessed as 'None'. Resilience is assessed as 'Medium' and sensitivity is assessed as 'Medium'. | |||
Not Assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | Not assessed (NA) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not assessed. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
No evidence. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant to off-shore biotopes. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant’ to seabed habitats. NB. Collision by grounding vessels is addressed under ‘surface abrasion. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Not relevant. |
Use / to open/close text displayed | Resistance | Resilience | Sensitivity |
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
Key characterizing species within this biotope are not cultivated or translocated. This pressure is therefore considered ‘Not relevant’ to this biotope group. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
No evidence. | |||
No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | No evidence (NEv) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
More than 20 viruses have been described for marine bivalves (Sinderman, 1990). Bacterial diseases are more significant in the larval stages and protozoans are the most common cause of epizootic outbreaks that may result in mass mortalities of bivalve populations. Parasitic worms, trematodes, cestodes and nematodes can reduce growth and fecundity within bivalves and may in some instances cause death (Dame, 1996). Little information specifically concerning the effects of microbial pathogens and parasites on the viability of the characterizing species was found. A viral infection of the mutualist bacterium living on the gills of Thyasira gouldii has been suggested as the reason for a major decline in the Loch Etive population (Jackson, 2007, references therein), Sensitivity assessment. No direct evidence of the biotopes being affected by the introduction of microbial pathogens was found to assess this pressure. | |||
Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | Not relevant (NR) | |
Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | Q: NR A: NR C: NR | |
No species within the biotope are targeted by commercial or recreational fishers or harvesters. This pressure is therefore considered ‘Not relevant’. | |||
Low | High | Low | |
Q: Low A: NR C: NR | Q: High A: Low C: Medium | Q: Low A: Low C: Low | |
Removal of the characterizing species would reduce the ecological services provided by these species such as secondary production and nutrient cycling. Sensitivity assessment. Species within the biotope are relatively sedentary or slow moving although the infaunal position of Thyasira spp. may protect this genus from removal. Biotope resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ and resilience as ‘High’ as the habitat is likely to be directly affected by removal but Thyasira spp. will recolonize rapidly. Some variability in species recruitment, abundance and composition is natural and therefore a return to a recognisable biotope should occur within 2 years. Repeated chronic removal would, however, impact recovery. |
Archer, D. & Martin, P., 2001. Thin walls tell the tale. Science (Washington), 5549, 2108-2109.
Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long- and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315-1320.
Borja, A., Franco, J. & Perez, V., 2000. A marine biotic index to establish the ecological quality of soft-bottom benthos within European estuarine and coastal environments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40 (12), 1100-1114.
Buchanan, J.B., 1964. A comparative study of some of the features of the biology of Amphiura filiformis and Amphiura chiajei (Ophiuroidea) considered in relation to their distribution. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 44, 565-576.
Buzas, M.A., 1978. Foraminifera as prey for benthic deposit feeders: results of predator exclusion experiments. Journal of Marine Research, 36, 617-625
Connor, D.W., Dalkin, M.J., Hill, T.O., Holt, R.H.F. & Sanderson, W.G., 1997a. Marine biotope classification for Britain and Ireland. Vol. 2. Sublittoral biotopes. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, JNCC Report no. 230, Version 97.06., Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, JNCC Report no. 230, Version 97.06.
Dahllöf, I., Blanck, H., Hall, P.O.J. & Molander, S., 1999. Long term effects of tri-n-butyl-tin on the function of a marine sediment system. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 188, 1-11.
Dame, R.F.D., 1996. Ecology of Marine Bivalves: an Ecosystem Approach. New York: CRC Press Inc. [Marine Science Series.]
Dando, P.R. & Southward, A.J., 1986. Chemoautotrophy in bivalve molluscs of the Genus Thyasira. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 60, 915-929.
Dando, P.R. & Spiro, B., 1993. Varying nutritional dependence of the thyasirid bivalves Thyasira sarsi and Thyasira equalis on chemoautotrophic symbiotic bacteria, demonstrated by isotope ratios of tissue carbon and shell carbonate. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 92, 151-158.
Folk, R.L., 1954. The distinction between grain size and mineral composition in sedimentary-rock nomenclature. 62, The Journal of Geology, 344-359.
Fransz, H.G. & Gieskes, W.N.C., 1984. The imbalance of phytoplankton and copepods in the North Sea. Rapports et Procés - Verbaux des réunion du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer, 183, 218-225.
Gittenberger, A. & Van Loon, W.M.G.M., 2011. Common Marine Macrozoobenthos Species in the Netherlands, their Characterisitics and Sensitivities to Environmental Pressures. GiMaRIS report no 2011.08. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3135.7521
Glémarec, M., 1973. The benthic communities of the European North Atlantic continental shelf. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 11, 263-289.
Gray, J.S., 1979. Pollution-induced changes in populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 286, 545-561.
Hartley, J.P., 1984. The benthic ecology of the Forties Oilfield (North Sea). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 80, 161-195.
Hiscock, K., 1983. Water movement. In Sublittoral ecology. The ecology of shallow sublittoral benthos (ed. R. Earll & D.G. Erwin), pp. 58-96. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
JNCC (Joint Nature Conservation Committee), 2022. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 22.04. [Date accessed]. Available from: https://mhc.jncc.gov.uk/
JNCC (Joint Nature Conservation Committee), 2022. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland Version 22.04. [Date accessed]. Available from: https://mhc.jncc.gov.uk/
Jones, N.S., 1950. Marine bottom communities. Biological Reviews, 25, 283-313.
Künitzer, A., Basford, D., Craeymeersch, J.A., Dewarumez, J.M., Derjes, J., Duinevald, G.C.A., Eleftheriou, A., Heip, C, Herman, P., Kingston, P., Neirmann, U., Rachor, E., Rumohr, H. & Wilde, P.A.J. de, 1992. The benthic infauna of the North Sea: species distribution and assemblages. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 49, 127-143.
Leppäkoski, E., 1975. Assessment of degree of pollution on the basis of macrozoobenthos in marine and brackish water environments. Acta Academiae Åboensis, Series B, 35, 1-90.
Mackie, A.S.Y., Oliver, P.G. & Rees, E.I.S., 1995. Benthic biodiversity in the southern Irish Sea. Studies in Marine Biodiversity and Systematics from the National Museum of Wales. BIOMOR Reports, no. 1.
McIntyre, A.D., 1961. Quantitative differences in the fauna of boreal mud associations. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 41, 499-616.
Ockelmann, W.K., 1958. The zoology of east Greenland. Marine Lamellibranchiata. Meddelelser om Grønland, 122, 1-256.
Pearson, T.H. & Rosenberg, R., 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 16, 229-311.
Pearson, T.H., Mannvik, Hans-Petter, Evans, R. & Falk-Petersen, Falk. 1996. The benthic communities of the Snorre Field in the Northern North Sea. 1. The distribution and structure of communities in undisturbed sediments. Journal of Sea Research, 35, 301-314.
Peterson, C.H., 1977. Competitive organisation of the soft bottom macrobenthic communities of southern California lagoons. Marine Biology, 43, 343-359.
Ramsay, K., Kaiser, M.J. & Hughes, R.N. 1998. The responses of benthic scavengers to fishing disturbance by towed gears in different habitats. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 224, 73-89.
Rivkin, R.B. & DeLaca, T.E., 1990. Trophic dynamics in Antarctic benthic communities. I. In situ ingestion of macroalgae by foraminifera and metazoan meiofauna. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 64, 129-136.
Rosenberg, R. & Loo, L., 1988. Marine eutrophication induced oxygen deficiency: effects on soft bottom fauna, western Sweden. Ophelia, 29, 213-225.
Rowden, A.A., Jago, C.F. & Jones, S.E., 1998b. Influence of benthic macrofauna on the geotechnical and geophysical properties of surficial sediment, North Sea. Continental Shelf Research, 18, 1347-1363.
Sinderman, C.J., 1990. Principle diseases of marine fish and shellfish, 2nd edition, Volume 2. Diseases of marine shellfish. Academic Press, 521 pp.
Southward, E.C., 1986. Gill symbionts in the Thyasirids and other bivalve molluscs. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 66, 889-914.
Sparks-McConkey, P.J. & Watling, L., 2001. Effects on the ecological integrity of a soft-bottom habitat from a trawling disturbance. Hydrobiologia, 456, 73-85.
Spiro, B., Greenwood, P.B., Southward, A.J. & Dando, P.R., 1986. 13C/12C ratios in marine invertebrates from reducing sediments: confirmation of nutritional importance of chemoautotrophic endosymbiotic bacteria. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 28, 233-240.
Stephen, A.C., 1923. Preliminary survey of the Scottish waters of the North Sea by the Petersen grab. Scientific Investigations of the Fisheries Division of the Scottish Home Department, 11.
Suchanek, T.H., 1993. Oil impacts on marine invertebrate populations and communities. American Zoologist, 33, 510-523. DOI https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/33.6.510
Thorson, G., 1934. Contributions to the animal ecology of the Scoresby Sound Fjord complex (east Greenland). Meddelelser om Grønland. Kommissionen for Videnskabelige Undersøgelser I Grønland, 100, 1-67.
Thorson, G., 1946. Reproduction and larval development of Danish marine bottom invertebrates, with special reference to the planktonic larvae in the Sound (Øresund). Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Danmarks Fiskeri- Og Havundersögelser, Serie: Plankton, 4, 1-523.
Thorson, G., 1957. Bottom communities (sublittoral or shallow shelf). Memoirs of the Geological Society of America, 67, 461-534.
Tillin, H. & Tyler-Walters, H., 2014b. Assessing the sensitivity of subtidal sedimentary habitats to pressures associated with marine activities. Phase 2 Report – Literature review and sensitivity assessments for ecological groups for circalittoral and offshore Level 5 biotopes. JNCC Report No. 512B, 260 pp. Available from: www.marlin.ac.uk/publications
Tomczak, G. & Goedecke, E., 1964. Die thermische Schichtung der Nordsee auf Grund des mittleren Jahresgangs der Temperatur in 1/2°- und 1°- Feldern. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift, Ergänzungsheft B, 8
UKTAG, 2014. UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water Framework Directive [online]. Available from: http://www.wfduk.org
Wetmore, K., 1995. Learning from the fossil record: Foram facts - an introduction to foraminifera [On-line]. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/Wetmore.html, 2002-08-15
Widdicombe, S. & Austen, M.C., 1999. Mesocosm investigation into the effects of bioturbation on the diversity and structure of a subtidal macrobenthic community. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 189, 181-193.
This review can be cited as:
Last Updated: 01/06/2016