Distribution data supplied by the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS). To interrogate UK data visit the NBN Atlas.Map Help
Researched by | Georgina Budd & Will Rayment | Refereed by | Dr Bill Langston |
Authority | Linnaeus, 1758 | ||
Other common names | - | Synonyms | Macoma balthica (Linnaeus, 1758), Limecola balthica (Linnaeus, 1758) |
Macoma balthica is widely distributed throughout north-west Europe and Britain. It has a plump almost circular shell, up to 25 mm in length, with umbones close to the midline. The posterior of the shell may be very slightly tapered. The colour of the shell varies between pink, purple, yellow, white and may be blackened in sulphide-rich sediments. The colour is either uniform throughout the shell or in concentric bands.
- none -
Phylum | Mollusca | Snails, slugs, mussels, cockles, clams & squid |
Class | Bivalvia | Clams, cockles, mussels, oysters, and scallops |
Order | Cardiida | |
Family | Tellinidae | |
Genus | Macoma | |
Authority | Linnaeus, 1758 | |
Recent Synonyms | Macoma balthica (Linnaeus, 1758)Limecola balthica (Linnaeus, 1758) |
Typical abundance | High density | ||
Male size range | < 25mm | ||
Male size at maturity | 3-6mm | ||
Female size range | 3-6mm | ||
Female size at maturity | |||
Growth form | Bivalved | ||
Growth rate | 3mm/year | ||
Body flexibility | None (less than 10 degrees) | ||
Mobility | |||
Characteristic feeding method | Active suspension feeder, Surface deposit feeder | ||
Diet/food source | |||
Typically feeds on | Diatoms, deposited plankton, suspended phytoplankton & detritus. | ||
Sociability | |||
Environmental position | Infaunal | ||
Dependency | No information found. | ||
Supports | No information | ||
Is the species harmful? | No |
Abundance
Stephen (1929) reported typical abundances of Macoma balthica from the Firth of Forth to be 0-89/m² and maximum abundance to be 288/m². Ratcliffe et al. (1981) reported adult densities in the Humber Estuary, UK, between 5,000/m² and 40,000/m² depending on time since a successful spatfall. Bonsdorff et al. (1995) reported juvenile density in the Baltic Sea following settlement to be 300,000/m² decreasing to a stable adult density of 1,000/m².
Size at maturity
Caddy (1967) reported Macoma balthica) from the River Thames reaching maturity in their 2nd year at a size of 5-6mm, whereas in the Netherlands, first year animals larger than 4mm had developed gonads during the spawning season (Lammens, 1967). Lavoie (1970) (cited in Gilbert, 1978) reported that a population of Macoma balthica from a French estuary did not achieve sexual maturity until their second year at a mean length of 3.57mm. Given that the growth rate varies significantly between populations, Gilbert (1978) suggested that Macoma balthica may mature in its 2nd year of life regardless of size or during its first year if a certain size is achieved. Harvey & Vincent (1989), however, consider that sexual maturity is a function of size rather than age in Macoma balthica, maturation occurring when the shell reaches 6mm with corresponding ages of individuals from the same population varying between 10 and 22 months.
Growth rate
Gilbert (1973) reported mean annual growth rate of Macoma balthica to be 3.3mm/yr with an average length of 18-20mm for fully grown individuals. However, other studies show considerable variations in growth patterns in relation to habitat and depth. McLusky & Allan (1976) reported the maximum growth rate of Macoma balthica in the laboratory to be 1 mm over an eight month period for 5-7 mm long animals maintained at 15°C and 25psu.
Toxicity
Macoma balthica is not normally considered to be toxic but may transfer toxicants through the food chain to predators. Macoma balthica was implicated in the Mersey bird kill in the late 1970's, owing to bioconcentration of alklyC-lead residues (Bull et al., 1983).
Physiographic preferences | Ria / Voe, Estuary, Enclosed coast / Embayment |
Biological zone preferences | Lower eulittoral, Mid eulittoral, Upper eulittoral |
Substratum / habitat preferences | Mud, Muddy sand, Sandy mud |
Tidal strength preferences | Moderately Strong 1 to 3 knots (0.5-1.5 m/sec.), Weak < 1 knot (<0.5 m/sec.) |
Wave exposure preferences | Extremely sheltered, Sheltered, Very sheltered |
Salinity preferences | Low (<18 psu), Reduced (18-30 psu), Variable (18-40 psu) |
Depth range | 1-190m |
Other preferences | No text entered |
Migration Pattern | Non-migratory / resident |
Reproductive type | Gonochoristic (dioecious) | |
Reproductive frequency | Annual episodic | |
Fecundity (number of eggs) | 10,000-100,000 | |
Generation time | 1-2 years | |
Age at maturity | See additional information | |
Season | See additional information | |
Life span | 5-10 years |
Larval/propagule type | - |
Larval/juvenile development | Planktotrophic |
Duration of larval stage | 1-6 months |
Larval dispersal potential | Greater than 10 km |
Larval settlement period | Insufficient information |
The MarLIN sensitivity assessment approach used below has been superseded by the MarESA (Marine Evidence-based Sensitivity Assessment) approach (see menu). The MarLIN approach was used for assessments from 1999-2010. The MarESA approach reflects the recent conservation imperatives and terminology and is used for sensitivity assessments from 2014 onwards.
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
High | High | Moderate | High | |
Limecola balthica inhabits the upper layers of sandy and muddy substrata in physiographic locations where activities causing substratum loss occur e.g. channel dredging. Consequently, removal of the substratum would remove the population of Limecola balthica from the area affected and so intolerance is assessed as high. Direct evidence of recovery by Limecola balthica following substratum loss is given by Bonsdorff (1984) (see additional information below) and recoverability is recorded as high. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
Limecola balthica is an infaunal species that is able to burrow both vertically and horizontally through the substratum which it inhabits by use of its foot. It is likely that Limecola balthica is not sensitive to smothering by a layer of sediment 5 cm thick as it is a mobile species able to burrow upwards and surface from a depth of 5 - 6 cm (Brafield & Newell, 1961; Brafield, 1963; Stekoll et al., 1980). | ||||
Tolerant* | Not relevant | Not sensitive* | Moderate | |
Limecola balthica is known to practice two alternative modes of feeding. It either holds its feeding organ, the siphon, at a fixed position just above the sediment surface to filter out food particles suspended in the overlying water, or extends and moves its siphon around on the sediment above it to vacuum up deposited food particles (Peterson & Skilleter, 1994). Facultative switching between the modes of feeding in Limecola balthica is directly affected by food availability in the over-lying water (Lin & Hines, 1994). In turn, changes in feeding mode from suspension to deposit feeding directly affects burial depth and burrowing in the sediment is one of few defensive mechanisms Limecola balthica has against predators. In the laboratory, Lin & Hines (1994) observed specimens of Limecola balthica kept in estuarine water supplemented with 75 µg L-1of algae to maintain a deeper burial position whilst suspension feeding, than those without an enhanced diet who deposit fed. Thus an increase of material in suspension will favour suspension feeding by Limecola balthica and indirectly reduce its vulnerability to lethal and sub-lethal siphon browsing by fish and decapods. Limecola balthica is therefore assessed as 'tolerant' with the potential for growth and reproduction to be enhanced by the increased food supply. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Limecola balthica is known to practice two alternative modes of feeding. It either holds its feeding organ, the siphon, at a fixed position just above the sediment surface to filter out food particles suspended in the overlying water, or extends and moves its siphon around on the sediment to vacuum up deposited food particles (Peterson & Skilleter, 1994). A reduction in suspended material is likely to decrease the availability of food attained efficiently by suspension feeding. Facultative switching between the modes of feeding in Limecola balthica is directly affected by food availability in the over-lying water (Lin & Hines, 1994). In turn, changes in feeding mode from suspension to deposit feeding directly affects its burial depth and burrowing in the sediment is one of few defensive mechanisms Limecola balthica has against predators. Thus a decrease in the amount of suspended material in the over-lying water is likely to initiate deposit feeding in Limecola balthica. In doing so, Limecola balthica may decrease the depth at which it resides in order to stretch its siphon over the substratum to feed efficiently. The exposure of its inhalent siphon (rather than just the tip) for deposit feeding is likely to increase the risk of lethal predation and non-lethal siphon browsing by fish and decapods. However, intolerance is assessed to be low since the benchmark change period is one month. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Limecola balthica is a bivalve and can close tightly by contraction of the adductor muscle, storing moisture inside the shell. The silty sediments in which the species lives have a high water content and are therefore resistant to desiccation. Furthermore, Limecola balthica is mobile and would be able to relocate further down the shore by burrowing (Bonsdorff, 1984) or floating (Sörlin, 1988) if exposed to desiccation stress. Limecola balthica has therefore been assessed as 'tolerant' to desiccation at the level of the benchmark. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Low | |
Limecola balthica occurs in the upper regions of the intertidal (Tebble, 1976) and is therefore likely to be tolerant of prolonged emergence. It is a bivalve and can close tightly by contraction of the adductor muscle, storing moisture inside the shell. The silty sediments in which the species lives have a high water content and are therefore resistant to desiccation. Furthermore, Limecola balthica is mobile and able to relocate in the intertidal by burrowing (Bonsdorff, 1984) or floating (Sörlin, 1988). It would be expected to react to an increase in emergence by migrating down the shore to its preferred position. There may be an energetic cost to this migration but it is not expected that mortality would result and so intolerance is recorded as low. Limecola balthica should quickly recover from the energetic cost of relocation and so recoverability is assessed as very high. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
Limecola balthica occurs in the intertidal and sublittorally down to depths of 190 m (Olafsson, 1986), although is more abundant intertidally, so would be expected to be tolerant of a decrease in emergence regime. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Moderate | |
Limecola balthica thrives in low energy environments such as estuaries (Tebble, 1976) where the substratum has a high proportion of fine sediment. Increased water flow rate will change the sediment characteristics in which the species lives, primarily by re-suspending and preventing deposition of finer particles (Hiscock, 1983). This would result in erosion of the preferred habitat, which may cause mortality of some portion of the population of Limecola balthica. Green (1968) recorded that towards the mouth of an estuary where sediments became coarser and cleaner, Limecola balthica was replaced by another tellin species, Tellina tenuis. Intolerance is therefore recorded as intermediate. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Limecola balthica thrives in low energy environments such as estuaries (Tebble, 1976) where the substratum has a high proportion of fine sediment. The species is able to maintain a feeding and respiration current independent of ambient flow. As a result of decreased water flow, rate of siltation is likely to increase, making conditions more favourable for deposit feeders. Indeed, Newell (1965) (cited in Green, 1968) noted that Limecola balthica populations in the Thames Estuary, UK, were denser where the grade of deposit was finer, possibly due to greater food availability. Therefore, Limecola balthica is probably tolerant of a decrease in water flow rate. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
The geographic range of Limecola balthica (see distribution) illustrates that the species is tolerant of a range of temperatures and probably becomes locally adapted. In Europe, the species occurs as far south as the Iberian Peninsula and hence would be expected to tolerate higher temperatures than experienced in Britain and Ireland. Oertzen (1969) reported that Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) could tolerate temperatures up to 49°C before thermal numbing of gill cilia occurred presumably resulting in death. Ratcliffe et al. (1981) reported that Limecola balthica from the Humber Estuary, UK, tolerated 6 hours of exposure to temperatures up to 37.5°C with no mortality. It seems likely therefore that the species could adapt to a chronic change and tolerate a large acute change with no mortality. The worst case scenario following an increase in temperature is an energetic cost associated with sub-optimal metabolic function and so intolerance is assessed as low. Metabolic activity should rapidly return to normal when temperatures fall to original levels so recoverability is assessed as very high. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
The geographical distribution of Limecola balthica suggests that it is very tolerant of low temperature. The species occurs in the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia where the sea freezes for several months of the year (Green, 1968). It must therefore tolerate much lower temperatures than it experiences in Britain and Ireland. Furthermore, Limecola balthica was apparently unaffected by the severe winter of 1962/3 which decimated populations of many other bivalve species (Crisp, 1964), and De Wilde (1975) noted that Limecola balthica kept at 0°C maintained a high level of feeding activity. It is unlikely therefore that UK populations of Limecola balthica would be intolerant of decreases in temperature. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Low | |
Limecola balthica does not require light and therefore is not directly affected by an increase in turbidity for the purposes of light attenuation. An increase in turbidity may affect primary production in the water column and therefore reduce the availability of phytoplankton food in suspension and deposited at the sediment surface. However, phytoplankton will also immigrate from distant areas and so the effect may be decreased. As the benchmark turbidity increase only persists for a year, decreased food availability would probably only affect growth and fecundity and an intolerance of low is recorded. As soon as light levels return to normal, primary production will increase and hence recoverability is recorded as very high. The effect of increased siltation is detailed in 'increase in suspended sediment' above. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
Limecola balthica does not require light and therefore would not be affected by a decrease in turbidity for light attenuation purposes. It is possible that decreased turbidity would increase primary production in the water column and by micro-phyto benthos. The resultant increase in food availability may enhance growth and reproduction in Limecola balthica but only if food was previously limiting. The effect of decreased siltation is detailed in 'decrease in suspended sediment' above. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
Limecola balthica characteristically inhabits fine sediments in low energy environments (Tebble, 1976). This suggests that it would, in some way, be intolerant of an increase in wave exposure. An increase in wave exposure by two categories for one year would be likely to affect the species in several ways. Fine sediments would be eroded (Hiscock, 1983) resulting in the likely reduction of the habitat of Limecola balthica. Strong wave action may cause damage or withdrawal of the siphons, resulting in loss of feeding opportunities and compromised growth. Furthermore, individuals may be dislodged by scouring from sand and gravel mobilized by increased wave action. For example, Ratcliffe et al. (1981) reported that juvenile Limecola balthica are susceptible to displacement by water currents due to their small mass and inability to bury deeply. For the above reasons, some mortality would be likely to occur and intolerance is recorded as intermediate. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Limecola balthica characteristically inhabits muddy sand in low energy environments (Tebble, 1976). It is capable of maintaining a feeding and respiration current by ciliary action. It is therefore unlikely to be affected by a decrease in wave exposure. However, it should be noted that decreased wave exposure will lead to changes in oxygenation and increased risk of smothering due to siltation. These factors are discussed in their relevant sections. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Limecola balthica is intolerant of shear-wave vibrations that propagate along the sediment surface in the frequency range 50-200 Hz (Franzen, 1995). When placed on the surface of the substratum and exposed to a shear-wave of typical velocity for unconsolidated muddy sand (15 meters per second), the response of Limecola balthica consisted of frequent and intense digging attempts (Franzen, 1995). It is likely that Limecola balthica will be not sensitive to the benchmark for underwater noise as it will either remain buried or take immediate avoidance reaction by burying without a detectable effect upon the species viability. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Limecola balthica does not have the visual acuity to detect objects and is unlikely to be sensitive to visual disturbance. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Very low | |
No evidence was found concerning the effect of physical abrasion on Limecola balthica. However, the species is not mobile enough to be able to avoid an object such as a dragging anchor or a scallop dredge and the shell is relatively thin and would probably be damaged by such an impact. It is expected that some mortality would result and therefore intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Moderate | |
Limecola balthica is likely to be tolerant of displacement as it is able to rebury itself within 17 minutes when placed on the surface of the substratum (McGreer, 1979). However, Limecola balthica individuals displaced to the sediment surface are likely to suffer an increased risk of predation and some mortality may result. Intolerance is therefore recorded as intermediate. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
High | High | Moderate | Very low | |
Beaumont et al. (1989) concluded that bivalves are particularly sensitive to tri-butyl tin (TBT), a toxic component of antifouling paints. For example, when exposed to 1-3 µg TBT/l, Cerastoderma edule and Scobicularia plana suffered 100% mortality after 2 weeks and 10 weeks respectively. There is also evidence that TBT causes recruitment failure in bivalves, either due to reproductive failure or larval mortality (Bryan & Gibbs, 1991). However, little evidence was found concerning the effects of synthetic chemicals specifically on Limecola balthica. Bryan & Gibbs (1991) recorded bioaccumulation of TBT by Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) to be similar to Cerastoderma edule and Scobicularia plana. Langston (1978) recorded bioaccumulation of a polychlorinated biphenyl in Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica), levels of Aroclor 1242 reached 60 ppm in 40 days. Duinker et al. (1983) also reported bioaccumulation of PCBs by Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) but made no comment on toxicity to the species. In light of the intolerance of other bivalve species, the intolerance of Limecola balthica to synthetic chemicals is recorded as high but with very low confidence. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). | ||||
High | High | Moderate | High | |
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High | High | Moderate | High | |
Stekoll et al. (1980) exposed Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) to Prudhoe Bay crude oil in flowing seawater for six months at three concentrations; low 0.03 mg/l, medium 0.3 mg/l and high 3.0 mg/l. Limecola balthica exhibited a range of behavioural, physical, physiological and biochemical changes prior to death at the highest concentration of oil. Mortality:
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No information | Not relevant | No information | Not relevant | |
Hutchins et al. (1998) described the effect of temperature on bioaccumulation by Limecola balthica of radioactive americium, caesium and cobalt, but made no comment on the intolerance of the species. Insufficient information was available to assess the intolerance of Limecola balthica to radionuclide contamination. | ||||
Tolerant* | Not relevant | Not sensitive* | Moderate | |
It has been suggested that Limecola balthica has the potential to be used as an indicator organism of organic pollution (Pearson & Rosenberg, 1978; Pekkarinen, 1983; Mölsa, 1986), as the species was reported to increase in abundance towards the sources of nutrient enrichment and to disappear when the organic loading became heavier (Anger, 1975 (a) & (b); Landner et al., 1977). Madsen & Jensen (1987) reported the population of Limecola balthica to increase in abundance and biomass at two localities in the Danish Wadden Sea experiencing nutrient enrichment caused by a waste water discharge. The increase in shell growth, productivity / biomass ratio and improvement in 'condition' index of Limecola balthica in the organically enriched areas was presumably due to the increased food supply (Madsen & Jensen, 1987). Owing to this evidence and that Limecola balthica is relatively tolerant to deoxygenation (an indirect effect of nutrient enrichment) it is likely that Limecola balthica will benefit from nutrient enrichment. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | High | |
McLusky & Allan (1976) conducted salinity survival experiments with Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) over a period of 150 days. No deaths were reported in specimens of Limecola balthica maintained at 30.5 psu for the duration of the experiment. Limecola balthica is found in brackish and fully saline waters (although it is more common in brackish waters) (Clay, 1967(b)) so may tolerate a state of flux. McLusky & Allan (1976) reported that Limecola balthica failed to grow at 41 psu, but it is likely that Limecola balthica would be tolerant of increased salinity and intolerance to a change in this factor is likely to be low. Growth should quickly return to normal when salinity returns to original levels and so recoverability is recorded as very high. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | High | |
McLusky & Allan (1976) conducted salinity survival experiments with Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) over a period of 150 days. Survival times declined with decreased salinity. At 12 psu specimens survived 78 days, whilst specimens at 8.5 psu survived 40 days. Some specimens of Limecola balthica survived 2.5 days at 0.8 psu, which was apparently due to the animals ability to clamp its valves shut in adverse conditions. McLusky & Allan (1976) also reported that Limecola balthica failed to grow (increase shell length) at 15 psu. Limecola balthica is found in brackish and fully saline waters (Clay, 1967(b)) so may tolerate a state of flux. Its distribution in combination with the experimental evidence of McLusky & Allan (1976) suggests that Limecola balthica is likely to be very tolerant to a decreased salinity over a short period. A decline in salinity in the long term may have implications for the species viability in terms of growth, and the distribution of the species may alter as specimens at the extremes retreat to more favourable conditions. Intolerance is therefore assessed as low. Metabolic function should quickly return to normal when salinity returns to original levels and so recoverability is recorded as very high. Decreased salinity may also affect the ability of Limecola balthica to tolerate contaminants such as heavy metals (see Bryant et al., 1985 & 1985a). Usually, contaminants become more toxic at low salinity (Langston, W.J. pers comm.). | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | High | |
Limecola balthica appears to be relatively tolerant of deoxygenation. Brafield & Newell (1961) frequently observed that in conditions of oxygen deficiency (e.g. less than 1 mg O2/l) Limecola balthica moved upwards to fully expose itself on the surface of the sand. Specimens lay on their side with the foot and siphons retracted but with valves gaping slightly allowing the mantle edge to be brought into full contact with the more oxygenated surface water lying between sand ripples. In addition, Limecola balthica was observed under laboratory conditions to extend its siphons upwards out of the sand in to the overlying water when water was slowly deoxygenated with a stream of nitrogen. The lower the oxygen concentration became the further the siphons extended. This behaviour, an initial increase in activity stimulated by oxygen deficiency, is of interest because the activity of lamellibranchs is generally inhibited by oxygen deficient conditions (Brafield & Newell, 1961). Dries & Theede (1974) reported the following LT50 values for Limecola balthicaa maintained in anoxic conditions : 50 - 70 days at 5°C, 30 days at 10°C, 25 days at 15°C and 11 days at 20°C. Theede (1984) reported that the ability of Limecola balthica to resist extreme oxygen deficiency was mainly due to cellular mechanisms. Of considerable importance are sufficient accumulations of reserve compounds e.g. glycogen and the ability to reduce energy requirements for maintenance of life by reducing overall activity (Theede, 1984). Limecola balthica is therefore very tolerant of hypoxia, although it may react by reducing metabolic activity. Intolerance is therefore assessed as low. Metabolic function should quickly return to normal when normoxic levels are resumed and so recoverability is recorded as very high. |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
Intermediate | High | Low | High | |
Limecola balthica is host to at least three gymnophallid trematodes; Lacunovermis macomae (Lebour), Gymnophallus gibberosus (Loos-Franc) and Parvatrema affinis which is known to cause sexual castration (Swennen & Ching, 1974). Specimens tend to be more infested at higher levels of the intertidal (1.0 m above mean low water) than at mean low water, and larger specimens tend to be more infested than smaller ones (Lim & Green, 1991). Lim & Green (1991) also suggest that increased exposure of Limecola balthica at the higher intertidal level to shore birds (the final host of the trematodes) is the reason for the differences in parasite load between the tidal levels. They found that the most parasitised specimens grew faster and larger than the less parasitised. Enhanced stomatic growth as a result of parasitic castration was proposed as a logical explanation to account for the faster growth rate of parasitised specimens. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). | ||||
No information | Not relevant | No information | Not relevant | |
There is no evidence to suggest that Limecola balthica is likely to be susceptible to displacement by invasive species. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | |
Limecola balthica is not extracted commercially. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
Commercial extraction of other infaunal species is likely to have an effect on Limecola balthica where their distributions overlap. Hall & Harding (1997) demonstrated that commercial cockle harvesting by suction dredging had significant effects on soft-sediment infaunal communities. Following dredging, species numbers were reduced by up to 30% and abundances by up to 50%. Bait harvesting has also been shown to impact infaunal bivalves. For example, mechanical harvesting for Arenicola marina resulted in drastic reduction in the population of Mya arenaria in the Wadden Sea (Beukema, 1995), and commercial digging of mudflats in Maine, USA, reduced total number of infaunal taxa (Brown & Wilson, 1997). Some mortality of Limecola balthica may occur therefore due to harvesting of other species so an intolerance of intermediate is recorded. Recoverability is recorded as high (see additional information below). |
The life history characteristics of Limecola balthica give the species strong powers of recoverability. Adults spawn at least once a year and are highly fecund (Caddy, 1967). There is a planktotrophic larval phase which lasts up to 2 months (Fish & Fish, 1996) and so dispersal over long distances is potentially possible given a suitable hydrographic regime. Following settlement, development is rapid and sexual maturity is attained within 2 years (Gilbert, 1978; Harvey & Vincent, 1989). In addition to larval dispersal, dispersal of juveniles and adults occurs via burrowing (Bonsdorff, 1984; Guenther, 1991), floating (Sörlin, 1988) and probably via bedload transport (Emerson & Grant, 1991). It is expected therefore that recruitment can occur from both local and distant populations.
Bonsdorff (1984) studied the recovery of a Limecola balthica (as Macoma balthica) population in a shallow, brackish bay in SW Finland following removal of the substratum by dredging in the summer of 1976. Recolonization of the dredged area by Limecola balthica began immediately after the disturbance to the sediment and by November 1976 the Limecola balthica population had recovered to 51 individuals/m². One year later there was no detectable difference in the Limecola balthica population between the recently dredged area and a reference area elsewhere in the bay. In 1976, two generations could be detected in the newly established population indicating that active immigration of adults was occurring in parallel to larval settlement. In 1977, up to six generations were identified, giving further evidence of active immigration to the dredged area. In light of the life history characteristics of Limecola balthica and the evidence of recovery, recoverability of the species is assessed as high.
- no data -
National (GB) importance | - | Global red list (IUCN) category | - |
Native | - | ||
Origin | - | Date Arrived | - |
Anger, K., 1975a. Quantitative studies on indicator species and communities. Merentutkimuslaitoksen Julkaisau. Helsinki, 239, 116-122.
Anger, K., 1975b. On the influence of sewage pollution on inshore benthic communities in the south of Kiel Bay. Helgolander Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 27, 408-438.
Beaumont, A.R., Newman, P.B., Mills, D.K., Waldock, M.J., Miller, D. & Waite, M.E., 1989. Sandy-substrate microcosm studies on tributyl tin (TBT) toxicity to marine organisms. Scientia Marina, 53, 737-743.
Beukema, J.J., 1995. Long-term effects of mechanical harvesting of lugworms Arenicola marina on the zoobenthic community of a tidal flat in the Wadden Sea. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research, 33, 219-227.
Boisson, F., Hartl, M.G.J., Fowler, S.W. & Amiard-triquet, C., 1998. Influence of chronic exposure to silver and mercury in the field on the bioaccumulation potential of the bivalve Macoma balthica. Marine Environmental Research, 45, 325-340.
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Bonsdorff, E., Norrko, A. & Boström, C., 1995. Recruitment and population maintenance of the bivalve Macoma balthica (L.) - factors affecting settling success and early survival on shallow sandy bottoms. In Proceedings of the 28th European Marine Biology Symposium. Biology and ecology of shallow coastal waters (ed. A. Eleftheriou, A.D. Ansell and C.J. Smith). Olsen and Olsen.
Brafield, A.E. & Newell, G.E., 1961. The behaviour of Macoma balthica (L.). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 41, 81-87.
Brafield, A.E., 1963. The effects of oxygen deficiency on the behaviour of Macoma balthica. Animal Behaviour, 11, 245-346.
Brown, B. & Wilson, W.H., 1997. The role of commercial digging of mudflats as an agent for change of infaunal intertidal populations. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 218, 39-51.
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Last Updated: 19/12/2001