Distribution data supplied by the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS). To interrogate UK data visit the NBN Atlas.Map Help
Researched by | Karen Riley | Refereed by | Prof. Alan J. Southward |
Authority | (Poli, 1791) | ||
Other common names | - | Synonyms | - |
An intertidal barnacle with six solid wall plates, an oval-shaped operculum opening, and a membranous base. Juveniles have a kite-shaped opercular opening. The rostral plate is relatively narrow, plates are of roughly equal size, and its rostral plate is not fused with the rostrolateral plates. Usually conical in shape, however when crowded may become tubular. It may reach a diameter of approximately 14 mm, depending on habitat, food availability and level on the shore. The tissue inside the opercular aperture is bright blue with black and orange markings.
Before 1976 Chthamalus montagui was considered a variety of Chthamalus stellatus, but in 1976 was identified as a distinct species, due to differences in its vertical zonation on the shore and morphology, particularly in the shape of the opercular plates, setation of the smaller cirri. (Southward, 1976).
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Phylum | Arthropoda | Arthropods, joint-legged animals, e.g. insects, crustaceans & spiders |
Family | Chthamalidae | |
Genus | Chthamalus | |
Authority | (Poli, 1791) | |
Recent Synonyms |
Typical abundance | High density | ||
Male size range | Up to 1.4cm | ||
Male size at maturity | |||
Female size range | Small(1-2cm) | ||
Female size at maturity | |||
Growth form | |||
Growth rate | ca. 10-55 | ||
Body flexibility | None (less than 10 degrees) | ||
Mobility | |||
Characteristic feeding method | Active suspension feeder, See additional information | ||
Diet/food source | |||
Typically feeds on | Generally feeds on plankton. | ||
Sociability | |||
Environmental position | Epifaunal | ||
Dependency | Independent. | ||
Supports | None | ||
Is the species harmful? | No |
Feeding
Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui generally feed on small plankton. They can consume diatoms, but were found not to grow under a regime dominated by diatoms (Barnes & Barnes, 1965). Normal feeding of chthamalids involves a cirral beat. This cirral beat is also noted to be a respiratory mechanism (Anderson & Southward, 1987). However, in high wave exposure they tend to hold their cirri out stiffly against the water current for a long period of time, retracting when food is captured (Crisp, 1950). Barnacles living in wave exposed conditions may benefit from this passive suspension feeding habit where cirral beating and consequent energy expenditure are minimised (Crisp, 1950).
Rates of cirral beat decrease with age and size, but increase with temperature (Anderson & Southward, 1987). Green (1961) reported that barnacles higher up on shore had a higher cirrial beat frequency than those at lower levels. However, Southward (1955; 1964(b)) found no similar trends.
Southward (1955) found that there was no response of Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui in still water and that cirrial beating was only induced at a current of approximately 10 cm / sec. The extension response was also sometimes shown. The cirrial beating frequency is also related to temperature, shown by experiments by Southward (1955). Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui barnacles kept at a temperature of 0 °C did not react to touch after an hour. He also found that they remained inactive at a temperature up to 5 °C. Between 5 and 30 °C there was a linear increase to 10 beats every 10 seconds. This slowly declined above 33 °C and dropped rapidly at 36 °C. Although the species resisted coma above a temperature of 40 °C, all cirrial beating ceased at 37.5 °C.
Respiration
Sessile barnacles have a pair of gills: pleats of the mantle wall, attached to the mantle cavity (Stubbings, 1975). Rainbow (1984) also stated that the cirri might also play an important role in respiration. There is usually a slow respiratory pumping beat, with varied emergence of the cirri.
Moulting
Barnacles need to moult in order to grow. Feeding rate and temperature determine the frequency of moulting. Moulting does not take place during winter when phytoplankton levels and temperatures are low (Crisp & Patel, 1960).
Growth
Once the barnacle is fixed in place it is unable to detach again (Crisp, 1955). All species grow faster in early life and slower in later life, and chthamalids tend to become tubular when crowded (Southward & Crisp, 1965). The growth rate varies with a variety of biological and environmental factors, including current flow, orientation with respect to current, food supply, wave exposure, shore height, surface contour, and intra- or inter-specific competition. Growth in Chthamalus spp. takes place along the whole internal surface of the one layered plates (Bourget, 1977). The growth rate for Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui has been reported by Barnes (1956; Crisp & Bourget (1985) as between 10 - 55 µm per day (relatively slow) in the linear phase. Crisp (1950) noticed that Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui reached a maximum size of 0.2 to 1.4 cm. Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui was found to have a lower growth rate than many other species of barnacles (Relini, 1983). The species reached a basal diameter of 2-2.5 mm in 3 months, 3.5-4 one year later, up to 8 mm in the 2nd year of growth, but generally no more than about 5-6 mm (Relini, 1983). Sometimes a decrease in size was noticeable, due to abrasion. This low growth rate was found to be associated with a low metabolic rate, or low oxygen consumption, by Barnes & Barnes (1965). Benedetti-Cecchi et al. (2000) observed that Chthamalus stellatus barnacles in the north west Mediterranean were significantly larger the higher up shore that they were found. However, no significant difference in growth rate was noted by Benedetti-Cecchi et al. (2000), with the growth rate of juveniles being between 0.4 and 0.8 mm per year, and that greater mortality of young and adults in a low shore environment.
Parasites and epizoites
Healy (1986, in O'Riordan et al., 1992) observed the parasitic isopod, Hemioniscus balani in Chthamalus stellatus and Chthamalus montagui in Ireland, although it was never present in Lough Hyne populations. However, Southward & Crisp (1954) found that although it attacks and sterilises Semibalanus balanoides individuals, it does not normally attack chthamalids on British shores.
Further Information
Physiographic preferences | Open coast |
Biological zone preferences | Lower eulittoral, Mid eulittoral |
Substratum / habitat preferences | Artificial (man-made), Bedrock, Large to very large boulders |
Tidal strength preferences | Moderately Strong 1 to 3 knots (0.5-1.5 m/sec.), Strong 3 to 6 knots (1.5-3 m/sec.), Very Strong > 6 knots (>3 m/sec.) |
Wave exposure preferences | Exposed |
Salinity preferences | Full (30-40 psu) |
Depth range | Not relevant |
Other preferences | No text entered |
Migration Pattern | Non-migratory / resident |
Reproductive type | Self-fertilization | |
Reproductive frequency | Annual episodic | |
Fecundity (number of eggs) | 1,000-10,000 | |
Generation time | 1-2 years | |
Age at maturity | 9 - 10 months | |
Season | May - August | |
Life span | 2-5 years |
Larval/propagule type | - |
Larval/juvenile development | Planktotrophic |
Duration of larval stage | 11-30 days |
Larval dispersal potential | Greater than 10 km |
Larval settlement period | Insufficient information |
The MarLIN sensitivity assessment approach used below has been superseded by the MarESA (Marine Evidence-based Sensitivity Assessment) approach (see menu). The MarLIN approach was used for assessments from 1999-2010. The MarESA approach reflects the recent conservation imperatives and terminology and is used for sensitivity assessments from 2014 onwards.
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
High | Moderate | Moderate | High | |
Barnacles are permanently attached to hard rough surfaces. Therefore, loss of substratum due to activities such as spoil dumping or land claim will result in loss of individuals in the area. If suitable substrata remains within the area, colonization of juvenile barnacles is possible. Intolerance is assessed as high. Recoverability is likely to be moderate (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Moderate | |
Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui have been shown to be relatively unaffected by smothering by oil. Monterosso (1930) showed experimentally that the species can survive complete smothering by petroleum jelly for approximately two months, by respiring anaerobically. Complete smothering caused by the Torrey Canyon oil spill yielded similar results; A few Semibalanus balanoides died, yet Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui seemed unaffected, while at Booby's bay more than 90 % had managed to clear an opening in the oil film (Smith, 1968). Although oil had very little effect on individuals, it is likely that smothering by sediment can clog breathing apparatus. Recruitment to the smothered area will also be reduced. Therefore intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Barnacles are likely to be able to tolerate a slight increase in suspended sediment concentration. A large increase in siltation to 100 mg/l for one month is likely to block breathing apparatus and impose an energetic cost of cleaning the gills. Intolerance is therefore assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be very high as feeding and respiratory structures are likely to be clear of particles within a short space of time. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
A decrease in suspended sediment concentration is unlikely to affect Chthamalus stellatus populations. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Chthamalus stellatus is a warm water species, with its northern limit of distribution in Britain. It tends to be more tolerant to desiccation than Semibalanus balanoides. The higher the species occurs up on the shore, the more resistant to desiccation influences they tend to be (Southward, 1955). Cracks and crevices offer further protection from desiccation. Southward (1958) reported an internal temperature of 28.8 °C in an air temperature of 13.7 °C. Therefore, intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be very high (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Moderate | |
According to Hines (1978) temperature and food availability are the main factors controlling the duration of the breeding season and the embryonic development rate. With an increase in emergence, the period of time covered by the water would decrease, and the time available for feeding and breeding would also decrease. This is likely to reduce the growth rate and reproduction. There is also likely to be a shift downwards on the shore due to competition between Semibalanus balanoides. Intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Low | High | Low | High | |
Barnacle populations are likely to be tolerant to a decrease in emergence. With a decrease in the emergence regime, the feeding time and breeding possibilities are likely to increase. Adults of Chthamalus stellatus can survive permanent submersion (Barnes, 1953). However, competition between Semibalanus balanoides is likely to play an important role in the changes in species distribution. It is likely that the distribution of Chthamalus stellatus will move further up the shore, with no noticeable difference in the range. Intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be very high (see Additional Information section below). Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui are very tolerant of high periods of emersion, yet Patel & Crisp (1960) found that when barnacles which were brooding eggs were kept out of the water, a second batch of eggs was not produced. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
An increase in water flow rate is likely to lead to a higher growth rate and annual recruitment. Intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be very high (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
A decrease in the water flow rate is likely to lead to a decrease in food availability and recruitment. Intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be very high (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Tolerant* | Not relevant | Not sensitive* | High | |
Chthamalus stellatus would be favoured by an increase in temperature based on the following information:
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High | Low | High | High | |
During the severe winter of 1962-63, over the majority of the species range, they were able to withstand the cold. However, greater mortalities were noted to occur a month or two after the coldest weather (Crisp, 1964). Chthamalus spp. populations declined (Southward, 1967) while Semibalanus balanoides increased, and in the temperature rise of 1988-89 the trend was reversed (Southward, 1991). A decline in Chthamalus spp. populations and an increase in Semibalanus balanoides occurred between 1951 and 1975, corresponding with a decrease in sea temperatures (Southward, 1991). Southward & Crisp (1954) noted that in 1948-51, during high temperatures in the British Isles Chthamalus spp. dominated over Semibalanus balanoides, and during 1951-52, during lower temperatures there was a resurgence of Semibalanus balanoides. Southward (1991) noted a two year phase lag between temperature trends and changes in barnacle abundance in Plymouth. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Barnes & Barnes (1968) found that in high suspended solids and low salinity there was a decrease in the number of eggs per brood of Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui. Fecundity in protected areas such as harbours is usually lower, possibly due to increased turbidity (Barnes, 1989). Intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be moderate (see Additional Information section, below.) | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
A decrease in turbidity is likely to lead to an increase in the quantity of flagellates available in the water column. Therefore, the species is assessed as 'tolerant'. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
Chthamalus stellatus colonizes exposed rocky shores. An increase in wave exposure is therefore unlikely to affect the species greatly. However, its vertical distribution has been found to increase with increasing wave exposure (Foster, 1971(b)). | ||||
Intermediate | Moderate | Moderate | High | |
Chthamalus stellatus colonizes exposed rocky shores. A decrease in wave exposure below 'exposed' is likely to result in replacement of Chthamalus stellatus with Chthamalus montagui, which favours more sheltered environments. A decrease in the level of wave exposure may also cause a shift in the community towards fucoid algae, which prevent barnacle larvae settlement. Intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be moderate (see Additional Information section below). | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
Barnacles are unlikely to be affected by noise. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
Barnacles are unlikely to be affected by visual presence. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
Cracks and crevices offer protection from some abrasion. Small abrasive forces, such as erosion from suspended sediment, has been noted to cause a decrease in barnacle size (Relilni, 1983). On a larger scale, Gubbay (1983) showed that Chthamalus montagui could withstand a compressive force of 42 newtons (N) and a much lower tensile force of 7.4 N, perhaps equivalent to trampling pressure. It is likely, due to Chthamalus stellatus and Chthamalus montagui being morphologically similar, that these values would be similar for Chthamalus stellatus. However, larger forces are likely to be more harmful to individuals. Therefore, intolerance is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be high (see additional information section below). | ||||
High | Moderate | Moderate | High | |
Once the barnacle is fixed in place it is unable to attach again (Crisp, 1955). Intolerance to displacement is therefore assessed as high. Recoverability is likely to be moderate (see Additional Information section below). |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
Intermediate | Moderate | Moderate | Very low | |
Barnacles have a low resilience to chemicals such as dispersants, dependant on the concentration and type of chemical involved (Holt et al., 1995). They are less intolerant than some species (e.g. Patella vulgata) to dispersants (Southward & Southward, 1978). However, the barnacle population suffered indirectly as a result of the mass mortality of grazers. The resultant bloom of algae, and growth of fucoids, within 6 months, grew over and killed surviving barnacles (Hawkins & Southward, 1992). Therefore, intolerance to synthetic chemicals is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be moderate (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
Low | High | Low | Very low | |
Barnacles accumulate heavy metals and store them as insoluble granules. No information is available as to the effects of heavy metals on Chthamalus stellatus, but a larger amount of information was found with respect to a barnacle from the same family, Semibalanus balanoides. It is possible that sensitivities to heavy metals may be similar in both species. Clarke (1947) investigated the intolerance of Semibalanus balanoides to copper, mercury, zinc and silver. He found that 90 percent of barnacles died when held in 0.35 mg/l Cu carbonate for two days. Zinc, mercury and silver killed 90 percent of barnacles in two days at concentrations of 32 mg/l, 1 mg/l and 0.4 mg/l respectively. Pyefinch & Mott (1948) recorded median lethal concentrations of 0.32 mg/l copper and 0.36 mg/l mercury over 24 hours for this species. Barnacles may tolerate fairly high level of heavy metals in nature, for example they are found in Dulas Bay, Anglesey, where copper reaches concentrations of 24.5 µg/l, due to acid mine waste (Foster et al., 1978). Therefore, intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
Low | High | Low | Moderate | |
Chthamalus stellatus/ Chthamalus montagui have been shown to be relatively unaffected by smothering by oil. Monterosso (1930) showed experimentally that the species can survive complete smothering by petroleum jelly for approximately two months, by respiring anaerobically. Complete smothering caused by the Torrey Canyon oil spill yielded similar results; A few Semibalanus balanoides died, yet Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui seemed unaffected, while at Booby's bay more than 90 % had managed to clear an opening in the oil film. On further examination these individuals were found to be in good condition, with no oil present in the gut (Smith, 1968). However, detergents used to clean up the oil lead to a decline in Chthamalus spp. populations. In areas which where large amounts of detergents had been used, there was much greater mortality, and in Kynance cove the population was wiped out completely (Smith, 1968). Therefore, intolerance to hydrocarbons is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
No information | Not relevant | No information | Not relevant | |
Insufficient information. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
Little data exists on the effects of increased nutrients on barnacles. A slight increase in nutrient levels may be beneficial for barnacles by promoting the growth of flagellates. However, Holt et al. (1995) predict that smothering by ephemeral green algae is a possibility under eutrophic conditions. Intolerance to nutrient levels is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
Chthamalids only occur in full salinity water, therefore an increase in salinity is unlikely to exert a noticeable effect. The species is recorded as not intolerant of an increase in salinity. | ||||
High | High | Moderate | Moderate | |
Barnacles are able to acclimatise over a number of days to reduced salinity (Rainbow, 1984), with their closing response is triggered at a lower salinity (Moore & Kitching, 1939). However, the behavioural avoidance is associated with anaerobiosis and low metabolic activity (Barnes et al., 1963). Barnes & Barnes (1965) found that in high suspended solids and low salinity there was a decrease in the number of eggs per brood of Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui. If salinities decrease below 21 psu all cirral activity of barnacles normally associated with full salinity waters, ceases (Foster, 1971). Therefore, intolerance to a decrease in salinity is assessed as high. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
High | High | Moderate | Moderate | |
Southward (1955) conducted experiments on the relationship of cirral activity in Chthamalus stellatus / Chthamalus montagui, connected with feeding and respiration, to decreased oxygenation, by passing nitrogen through the water at 6 ml per minute at 13 °C. He found that in all cases a decrease in oxygen concentration lead to a decrease in cirral activity and that, after 15 minutes, the mean cirral beat had decreased from 3.1 to 2.9 beats per second. After 30 minutes exposure, cirral beat had completely ceased and the barnacle remained inactive. It was further observed that the scuta and terga remained slightly open with the cirri often protruding. Barnacles have to obtain oxygen from the water through their cirri including by cirral beating in still water. Since cirri stop beating in response to lowered oxygen levels, it seems likely that intolerance will be high. Therefore, intolerance to oxygen levels is assessed as high. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional information section, below). |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
Healy (1986, in O'Riordan et al., 1992) observed the crustacean parasite, Hemioniscus balani, in Chthamalus stellatus and Chthamalus montagui in Ireland, although it was never present in Lough Hyne. However, Southward & Crisp (1954) found that although it attacks and sterilises Semibalanus balanoides individuals, it does not attack Chthamalids, at least not in the British Isles. Therefore, intolerance to microbial pathogens / parasites is assessed as intermediate. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). | ||||
Low | High | Low | Moderate | |
The Australasian barnacle Elminius modestus was introduced to British waters on ships during the second world war. Although the species does well in estuaries and bays, where it can displace Semibalanus balanoides and Chthamalus montagui, Chthamalus stellatus generally occurs in more exposed locations where Elminius modestus is likely to be less abundant or absent. Therefore, intolerance to non-native species is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be high. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | |
Not relevant. | ||||
Low | High | Low | Low | |
Collection of intertidal algae may damage barnacles by abrasion from trampling. Intolerance is assessed as low. Recoverability is likely to be high (see Additional Information section, below). |
- no data -
National (GB) importance | - | Global red list (IUCN) category | - |
Native | - | ||
Origin | - | Date Arrived | - |
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This review can be cited as:
Last Updated: 28/01/2002